Advanced Electric Generator & Control for High Speed Micro / Mini Turbine Based Power System
1. INTRODUCTION
High-speed
micro-turbines and mini-turbines play a significant role in the Distributed
Power Systems that provide dependable electric power close to the user. Several
high-speed turbo-generators manufactured by various corporations are now
available in the 30 kW to 90 kW range. These systems operate at speeds from
50000 RPM to 120000 RPM. The generator is directly coupled to the turbine
shaft. This obviates the need for a gearbox, helps reduce the size of the
generator, and lowers the cost of the overall system. The output power is
electronically processed and conditioned to provide constant voltage dc or
multi-phase ac power at constant frequency.
Technology
of micro-turbines is moving forward to address ratings above 100 kW due to the
growing demand for larger units. There is a tendency to use multiple units of
the existing 30 to 90 kW packages to satisfy this demand for higher power
capacity. However, use of turbogenerators of higher ratings is likely to be
beneficial to the user for the following reasons:
a)
Lower cost of investment per kW for
purchase and installation
b)
Lower cost of maintenance because of
reduced parts count
c)
Higher efficiency
d)
Safer operation.
At
the present time most generators used with micro-turbines are based on
permanent magnet technology. It is the objective of this paper to compare
alternatives to the PM generator technology, and introduce induction generator
technology as a more viable alternative in the power range exceeding 100 kW.
The approach in this paper is to present the concept in all its dimensions
including the issues of generator and controller design. The authors are
currently
engaged in the development of the
high-speed induction generator systems. Their experience in the field of the
technology forms the basis supporting the discussions in this paper.
2. SYSTEM DEFINITION AND CONSTRAINTS
It
is realized that one specific technology does not necessarily provide the best
answer under all situations. We must therefore limit our discussions to
applications within certain constraints. At this time the following broad
limits are applicable for the technology under consideration:
1. The micro or mini turbine systems considered here are in the 100 kW
to 500 kW power range. The system comprises mainly of high-speed turbine,
generator, controller, protection, and instrumentation. The generator and the
turbine are directly coupled. Figure 1 shows the components in a block diagram.
Figure 1: Micro- or Mini- Power Principal
Components
2. The prime mover operates at speeds between 30000 to 80000 RPM
depending upon the rated output. Typically, the operating speed of the prime
mover varies inversely with the rated output.
3. Constant speed of operation is considered. However, certain narrowly
defined operating speed range may be required in specific applications.
4. The generator must be designed for a cooling system that is
compatible with the system requirements. Typically either air, or lubricant
oil, or water glycol mixture is used.
5. The integrated power system is located close to the user such as in
a factory building, hospital, department store, and office complex.
Alternatively, vehicle mounted applications in airborne, land based or marine
situations are also considered. These mobile applications are valuable
particularly for military requirements.
6. The electrical power output is typically 3-phase ac with single or
multiple voltages. Alternatively, DC output may be required. In case of AC
power systems, 50/60 Hz. frequency is common for commercial applications, and
400 Hz. frequency is used in military / aerospace applications.
7. Compatibility with utility power systems may or may not be required.
In most situations stand-alone capability in isolation from a utility system is
required. In some other situations, power transfer from utility to the
turbo-generator and vice versa may be necessary.
8. The generator must also provide electric start capability during the
initial start up of the turbine.
9. The system must provide protection against hazards. Safety of
operation is an important consideration.
In
approaching various issues, we have considered the following issues to define
relative merits:
i)
Cost: Investment and Operational
ii)
Reliability and safety
iii)
Size, Power Density.
The
issues listed above are not necessarily listed in the order of their
importance.
3. GENERATOR
TECHNOLOGIES
We
plan to review three different generator technologies for comparison: permanent
magnet (PM), induction, and switched reluctance (SR). All these three are
suitable for highspeed operation in the speed range considered here. There are
other technologies such as synchronous reluctance and homopolar that are
suitable for high-speed operation but are not considered in this paper. We also
limit our discussion to radial geometric configurations for the three
technologies. Axial gap geometric configurations are not considered.
3.1 Permanent
Magnet (PM)
Micropower
systems currently in the market use the generator designs based on the PM
technology. The generator itself has two electromagnetic components: the
rotating magnetic field constructed using permanent magnets; and the stationary
armature constructed using electrical windings located in a slotted iron core.
Figure 2 shows the construction of a typical PM generator in a cross sectional
view.
Figure 2:
Permanent Magnet Generator Cross-sectional view
The
PM’s are made using high-energy rare earth materials such as Neodymium Iron
Boron or Samarium Cobalt. Retention of the PM”S on the shaft is provided by
high strength metallic or composite containment ring. The stationary iron core
is made of laminated electrical grade steel.
Electrical
windings are made from high purity copper conductors insulated from one another
and from the iron core. The entire armature assembly is impregnated using high
temperature resin or epoxy.
The
voltage output from the generator is unregulated, multiple phase ac. This
voltage varies as a function of the speed and load. This voltage output is
connected to a solid state power conditioning system. Typically, the solid
state power conditioning system uses buck/boost techniques and regulates the
entire power output.
3.2 Induction
The
technology of induction generator is based on the relatively mature electric
motor technology. Induction motors are perhaps the most common types of
electric motors used throughout the industry. Early developments in induction
generators were made using fixed capacitors for excitation, since suitable
active power devices were not available. This resulted in unstable power output
since the excitation could not be adjusted as the load or speed deviated from
the nominal values. This approach became possible only where a large power
system with infinite bus was available, such as in a utility power system. In
this case the excitation was provided from the infinite bus. With the
availability of high power switching devices, induction generator can be provided
with adjustable excitation and operate in isolation in a stable manner with
appropriate controls.
Induction
generator also has two electromagnetic components: the rotating magnetic field
constructed using high conductivity, high strength bars located in a slotted
iron core to form a squirrel cage; and the stationary armature similar to the
one described in the previous paragraph for PM technology. Figure 3 shows the
construction of a typical induction generator in a cross sectional view.
Figure 3:
Induction Generator Cross-sectional view
The
voltage output from the generator is regulated, multiple phase ac. The control
of the voltage is accomplished in a closed loop operation where the excitation
current is adjusted to generate constant output voltage regardless of the
variations of speed and load current. The excitation current, its magnitude and
frequency is determined by the control system. The excitation current is
supplied to the stationary armature winding from which it is induced into the
short circuited squirrel cage secondary winding in the rotor.
3.3 Switched
Reluctance (SR)
The
technology of SR generator is based on the concepts that magnetically charged
opposite poles attracts. Typically, there are unequal number of salient poles
on the stator and rotor. Both are constructed of laminated electrical grade
steel. Figure 4 shows a cross sectional view of the construction of the SR
generator. The number of poles shown on the stator is 6. The number of poles
shown the rotor is 4. Other pole combinations such as 8/6, 10/8 are possible.
There
is no winding on the rotor. Armature coils located on stator poles are
concentric and are isolated from one another. When the coils on opposite poles
such as 1 and 1 shown in Figure 4, are excited the corresponding stator poles
are magnetized. The rotor poles A-A are closest to the stator poles 1 and 1.
These are magnetized to opposite polarity by induction and are attracted
to the stator poles. If the prime mover
drives the rotor in the opposite direction, voltage is generated in the stator
coil to produce power.
Figure 4:
Switched Reluctance Generator Cross-sectional view
The
voltage output from the SR generator is DC and has high ripple content. The
voltage output can be filtered, and is regulated by adjusting the duration of
the excitation current. The commutation of the stator coil is accomplished by
the controller.
4. INDUCTION GENERATOR OPERATION
Figure
5 shows the speed torque characteristics of an induction motor operating from a
constant frequency power source. Most readers are familiar with this
characteristic of the induction motor operation. The operation of the induction
motor occurs in a stable manner in the region of the speed torque curve
indicated in Figure 5. The torque output as well as the power delivered by the
motor varies as the motor speed changes. At synchronous speed no power is
delivered at all. The difference between the synchronous speed and the
operating speed is called the slip. The output torque and power vary linearly
with the slip.
If
the induction motor is driven to a speed higher than the synchronous speed, the
speed torque curve reverses as shown in Figure 6. In the stable region of this
curve, electric power is generated utilizing the mechanical input power from
the prime mover. Once again the generated power is a function of the slip, and
varies with the slip itself.
In
the generator mode, if the slip is controlled in accordance with the load
requirements, the induction generator will deliver the necessary power. It must
be remembered that the synchronous speed is a function of the electrical
frequency applied to the generator terminals. On the other hand, the operating
shaft speed is determined by the prime mover. Therefore to generate power, the
electrical frequency must be adjusted as the changes in the load and the prime
mover speed occur.
In
addition to the requirement stated above, the excitation current must be
provided to the generator stator windings for induction into the rotor. The
magnitude of the excitation current will determine the voltage at the bus. Thus
the excitation current must be regulated at specific levels to obtain a
constant bus voltage. The controller for the induction generator has the dual
function as follows:
i)
Adjust the electrical frequency to
produce the slip corresponding to the load requirement.
ii)
Adjust the magnitude of the excitation
current to provide the desirable bus voltage.
Figure
7 depicts the region of generator mode operation for a typical induction
generator. A number of torque speed characteristic curves in the stable region
of operation are shown to explain the operation. As an example, consider the
situation when the prime mover is at the nominal or 100% speed. The electrical
frequency must be adjusted to cater for load changes from 0 to 100% of the
load. If a vertical line is drawn along the speed of 100%, it can be observed
that the electrical frequency must be changed from 100% at no load to about 95%
at full load if the prime mover speed is held at 100%.
5. BENEFITS OF
INDUCTION GENERATOR TECHNOLOGY
Induction
generator has several benefits to offer for the micro, mini power systems under
consideration. These benefits relate to the generator design as follows:
i)
Cost of Materials: Use
of electromagnets rather than permanent magnets means lower cost of materials
for the induction generator. Rare earth permanent magnets are substantially
more expensive than the electrical steel used in electromagnets. They also must
be contained using additional supporting rings.
ii)
Cost of Labor: PM’s
require special machining operations and must be retained on the rotor
structure by installation of the containment structure. Handling of permanent
magnets that are pre-charged is generally difficult in production shops. These
requirements increase the cost of labor for the PM generator.
iii)
Generator Power Quality: The
PM generator produces raw ac power with unregulated voltage. Depending upon the
changes in load and speed, the voltage variation can be vide. This is all the
more true for generators exceeding about 75 kW power rating. On he other hand
with SR generator, the output waveforms are non-sinusoidal and peaky as shown
in Figure 8. These waveforms must be filtered in order to get reasonably
constant voltage output.
The
induction generator produces ac voltage that is reasonably sinusoidal as shown
in the example from an actual test in Figure 9. This voltage can be rectified
easily to produce a constant dc voltage. Additionally, the ac voltage can be
stepped up or down using a transformer to provide multiple levels of voltages
if required.
Figure 9: Induction Generator AC Output
Voltage Waveform
iv)
Fault Conditions: When an internal
failure occurs in a PM generator, the failed winding will continue to draw
energy until the generator is stopped. For high-speed generators, this may mean
a long enough duration during which further damage to electrical and mechanical
components would occur. It could also mean a safety hazard for the individuals
working in the vicinity. The induction generator on the other hand is safely
shut down by de-excitation within a few milliseconds, preventing the hazardous
situations.
6. INDUCTION
GENERATOR CONTROLLER TECHNOLOGY
The
controller may be broadly divided into three sections, namely, the power
section, sensing circuits, and the control section. Power transistors using
IGBT’s or MOSFET’s are used in the power section of the generator controller in
a conventional multi-phase configuration, the number of phases being the same
as the number of phases in the generator winding. Antiparallel diodes are
connected across each of the transistor. The DC rail is connected to a power
capacitor. An additional power inverter is used when an AC output at a constant
frequency such as 60 or 50 Hz. is required. Sensing of currents and voltages is
provided at the load as well as in the power section of the controller. In
addition, the speed of the shaft is measured. All the parameters sensed by the
sensing circuits are conditioned by filtering and digitizing as required.
The
control section receives the information provided by the sensors. The
parametric model of the generator is incorporated in the control section. In
conjunction with a PID control algorithm, appropriate switching commands for
the power transistors are generated in the control section. This creates the
necessary frequency and amplitude of the excitation currents that flow in the
induction generator windings and are induced into the squirrel cage rotor. The
control section also includes protective functions such as over-current,
over-voltage, and over-temperature protection circuitry. Figure 10 shows the
controller in a block diagram.
Figure 10:
Controller Block Diagram
INDUCTION GENERATOR CONTROLLER
BENEFITS
When
compared to PM and SR generator controllers, induction generator controller
offers the following benefits:
i)
Sensing: The control of induction
generator slip requires precise measurement of speed. On the other hand, the
control of SR generator requires precise measurement of the rotor position.
This is a much more difficult task to accomplish than the measurement of speed.
ii)
Switching and control speed: For the SR
generator, the operating frequency is extremely high, in the range of 6 kHz. at
60000 RPM. This requires high speed switching of power transistors. The
switching commands also must be provided at a high rate. For the induction
generator, the operating frequency is in the 1 kHz. to 2 kHz. range at 60000
RPM depending upon whether 2 pole or 4 pole generator design is selected. The
switching rate for the power transistors can be lowered in a reasonable range.
iii)
Power Section Sizing: In the case of PM
generators, due to the wide variation in the voltage output, complexities are
introduced in the controller requiring voltage boost mechanisms. The power
electronic components must function at high stress levels. In the SR generator
controller, high rates of change of currents and voltages result in high stress
levels for the power electronic devices. The induction generator has a
wellregulated sinusoidal output that can be conditioned without using highly
stressed electronic components.
Overall
it is believed that the controller for the induction generator is more robust,
smaller in size, and cost less than the controller for PM or SR generators in
the power range under consideration.
7. STATUS
OF CURRENT TECHNOLOGY
Electrodynamics
Associates, Inc. is currently developing a 125-200 kW induction generator to operate at 62000 RPM on an SBIR
Phase II contract from AFRL/WPAFB, Dayton, OH. The generator is an air-cooled
design. An identical machine has built to operate as a motor. The generator and
the motor are mounted on a base plate and coupled together. An optical speed
counter is attached at one shaft extension. Figure 11 shows the photograph of
this assembly.
Figure 11: Induction Generator and Motor
Coupled Set
Controllers
for both the generator and the motor have been developed for the test purposes.
The control functions are embedded in a software model and the PC in the loop
system using MathWorksTM software packages is used. The
controller set up is shown in Figure 12.
Figure 12: Controller Setup for Induction
Generator and Motor
At
the time of writing this paper, the motor generator test set up is operational
and tests have been completed to 67 kW power output from the generator at 24000
RPM. The generated power on the dc bus is fed back into the motor, so that only
the losses in the motor generator set are provided from the utility bus. Tests
are continuing at higher speeds to demonstrate the rated power by the end of
the current calendar year. During the next phase of this project, improvements
in the controller are planned. Use will be made of current technology DSP’S or
ASIC’S along with more compact power electronic components to reduce the
controller size.
8.
CONCLUSION
By using
such mini/micro generator of higher rating have several beneficial i.e., low
cost of investment per kilowatt , lower cost of maintenance and has higher
efficiency and safer operation and such kind of generators can generate power
more than 100Kw as the generator runs at a higher speed of 50000 to 120000 rpm.
The
generator works under any internal fault condition until the generator is
stopped. In future the load demand will increase hence by using these
generators load demand can be over come.
9.
REFERENCES
1.
Jay Vaidya, President Electrodynamics Associates, Inc., 409,
Eastbridge Drive, Oviedo, FL 32765
2.
Earl Gregory, Power Generation, Propulsion Directorate
AFRL/PRPG, Wright Patterson AFB, OH 45433
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