Congenital malformalities
INTRODUCTION
Looking
forward to the arrival of a healthy baby is very prospective parents
dream. Sadly for some this dream is
shattered when the presence of some form of abnormality is recognized
prenatally, at birth or in the neonatal period.
The incidence of significant congenital malformalities is about 2-5% at
birth.
DEFINITION
Any
defect of form, structure or function occurring during conception or in fetal
life is termed as congenital abnormality.
ETIOLOGY
Genetics
The
defect is inherited through the genes in the ovum or sperm. Single gene disorder either autosomal or X
linked which may be dominant or recessive may be found.
Environmental
factors
·
Advancing maternal age
·
Adverse effects of drugs
·
Infections
·
Maternal malnutritions,
metabolic and endocrine disorders
·
Radiation and chemicals
CONGENITAL ABNORMALITY
GASTRO
INTESTINAL MALFORMATIONS
OESOPHAGEAL
ATRESIA
Oesophageal
atresia occurs when there is incomplete canalization of the oesophagus in early
intrauterine development. It is commonly
associated with traches – oesophageal fistula.
ETIOLOGY
·
Unknown cause
Factors influencing are
·
Heritable genetic factors
·
Teratogenic stimuli
·
Intra-Uterine environment
CLINICAL
FEATURES
·
It appears soon after birth
·
Excessive salvation
·
Constant drooling
·
Large amount of secretions form
nose.
·
Coughing
·
Gagging
·
Choking
·
Cyanosis
DIAGNOSIS
·
Antenatal diagnosis by USG
·
Postnatal diagnosis including
USG, plain X-ray abdomen, chest X-ray or passing of radio-opaque catheter
through oesophagus
·
Bronchoscopy
·
ECG
MANAGEMENT
Medical
Management
·
Baby should not be given by any
oral fluids
·
O2 therapy
·
IV fluid therapy
·
Nasogastric Tube aspiration
·
Antibiotic therapy
·
Respiratory support
·
Chest Physiotherapy
Surgical
Management
·
Gastrostomy
·
End to end anastomosis with
excision of the fistula by right postero lateral thoractomy.
·
Cervical esophagostomy
·
Esophago-coloplasty
·
Esophagogastroplasy
Nursing
Management
Pre-operative
Management
·
Preventing dehydration by IV
fluids, in take and output recording, monitoring of vital signs and childs general
conditions.
·
Reducing parentral anxiety by
emotional support.
Post-operative
Mangement
·
Maintaining clear airway.
·
Providing adequate feeding by
IV fluid and / or gastrostomy feeding.
·
Reducing pain by analgesics and
comfort measures.
·
Preventing infections by
general cleanliness, hygienic measures and administering antibiotics.
·
Monitoring childs condition and
dectecting problem by early interventions.
PYLORIC
STENOSIS
Pyloric
stenosis arises from a genetic defect that causes hypertrophy of the muscles of
the pyloric sphincter.
ETIOLOGY
·
Unknown cause
Etiological factors are
·
Maternal stress in last
trimester
·
Elevated prostaglandin level
·
Deficiency of nitric acid.
Clinical
features
·
It usually found in 3-12 weeks
of age
·
Occasional regurgitation
·
Vomiting
·
Constant hunger
·
Irritability
·
Failure to thrive
·
Constipation
·
Decreased quantity of stools
and urine output.
DIAGNOSIS
·
Plain X-ray abdomen
·
USG
·
Barium meal X-ray
·
Blood examination
·
Urine Examination
MANAGEMENT
·
No medical management
·
Surgical management
·
Ramstedts Pyloromyotomy
NURSING
MANAGEMENT
·
Maintain fluid and electrolyte
balance.
·
Nasogastric aspiration.
·
Recording of vital signs,
hydration status, body weight, vomiting, stool, urine and signs of
complication.
CLEFT
LIP AND CLEFT PALATE
Cleft
lip and cleft palate are congenital malformations of face resulting from the
failure of fusion of first brachial arch during intra uterine development.
ETIOLOGY
·
Genetic
·
Unfavorable maternal factors
·
Maternal factors may be viral
infections during 5th – 12th weeks of gestation or
ingestion of drug, exposure to x-ray, anaemia and hypoproteinemia.
MANAGEMENT
Surgical
management
In
cleft lip cheiloplasty should be done at 2-3 months of age.
The
cleft palate palatoplasty should be done at about age of 1 to 2 years of age
Nursing
Management
Preoperative
management
·
Cleft lip and cleft palate
should be collected at birth during initial neonatal assessment.
·
Provide emotional support to
the parents.
·
Demonstration to be given to
the mother and family members regarding feeding of the baby to prevent
aspiration and to provide adequate nutrition for growth and development.
·
The infant to be placed in
upright position during feeding.
·
Consent must be taken before
operation.
Post
Operative Management
·
Close observation of the baby.
·
Monitoring of vital signs
·
The child should be kept dry,
well feed and comfortable to prevent crying.
·
The child should be placed on
back in repair of cleft lip and on abdomen in prone position for repairs of
cleft palate.
·
Speech therapy may be needed.
GASTROSCHISIS
AND EXOMPHALOS
Gastroschisis
is a paramedian defect of the abdominal
wall with extension of bowel that is not covered by peritoneum. It is very vulnerable to infection and
injury.
Exomphalos
or omphalocele is a defect which the bowel or other viscera protrude through
the umbilicus.
MANAGEMENT
Surgical
Management
·
Gastroschisis is primary
closure or making a temporary silo from synthetic material.
Nursing
Management
·
To cover the herniated
abdominal contents with warm sterile saline swabs to reduce fluid and heat
loses and to give protection.
·
Stomach content should be
aspirated.
·
Wrap the baby or provide
incubator care to reduce heat losses.
ABNORMALITIES
RELATED TO RESPIRATION
DIAPHRAGMATIC
HERNIA
It
is a defect in the diaphragm that allows herniation of abdominal contents into
the thoracic cavity. The baby will have acute respiratory distress with cyanosis,
unequal movements of thorax, absent breath sound.
CLINICAL
FEATURES
·
At birth, the condition may be
suspected if the baby is cyanosed, and difficulty is experienced in
resuscitation.
·
Majority of defects are left
sided, heart sounds will be displaced to the right.
·
The abdomen may have a flat or
scaphoid appearance
DIAGNOSIS
·
Chest X-ray
·
Diagnosed antenataly by
ultrasound
MANAGEMENT
·
Insert a nasogastric tube to
prevent gaseous distention of bowel.
·
Continuous gastric suction
should be done.
·
Blood gas should be monitored.
·
Provide nitric oxide inhalation
therapy.
·
Surgical repair of hernia
should be done.
CHOANAL
ATRESIA
Chonal
atresia is a unilateral or bilateral narrowing of the nasal passage with a web
of tissue or bone occluding the nasopharynx.
CLINICAL
FEATURES
·
Trachypnoea
·
Dyspnoea
DIAGNOSIS
·
Nasal catheter cannot be passed
into the pharynx
·
Baby’s colour will improve with
crying
MANAGEMENT
·
Maintain a clear airway.
·
Surgery is required to remove
the obstructing tissue
CONGENITAL
CARDIAC DEFECT
VENTRICULAR
SEPTAL DEFECT
A
ventricular septal defect is an abnormal opening in the septum between right
and left ventricles.
CLINICAL
FEATURES
·
Recurrent chest infections
·
Exertional dyspnoea
·
Poor Weight gain
·
CCF
DIAGNOSIS
·
Chest X-ray
·
ECg
·
Two-dimensional echocardiogram
·
Doppler study
MANAGEMENT
·
Medical management
·
No medical management
Surgical
Management
Surgery
is done as one – stage or two – stage operation. One stage operation with patch closure of VSD
by open heart method can be performed.
Two stage approach is done with first stage, to band the pulmonary
artery to restrict pulmonary flow by closed-heart method. Second stage operation is done to patch close
the VSD and remove the PA band.
Nursing management
·
Long term follow up
·
Monitoring of ventricular
functions
COMPLICATION
·
Infective endocarditis
·
Pulmonary hypertension
·
CCF
ATRIAL
SEPTAL DEFECT
Atrial
septal defect is an abnormal opening between right and left atria resulting
left to right shunting of blood.
CLINICAL
FEATURES
·
Recurrent chest infection
·
Exestional dyspnoea
·
CCF
·
Poor Weight gain
DIAGNOSTIC
EVALUATION
·
Chest X-ray
·
ECG
·
Two-dimensional echocardiogram
·
Doppler study
Surgical
management
Repair
of the defect is done by suture closure or pericardial patch repair by open
heart surgery.
COMPLICATON
·
Infective endocarditis
·
CCF
·
Pulmonary artrial hypertension
PATENT
DUCTUS ARTERIOSUS
It
is the persistent vascular connection between the pulmonary artery and aorta.
CLINICAL
FEATURES
·
Tachyponea
·
Dysponea
·
Respiratory infections
·
CCF
·
Feeding difficulties
DIAGNOSIS
·
Auscultation
·
Chest X-ray
·
Doppler study
·
Cardiac Cetheterisation
MANAGEMENT
Medical
Management
·
Indomethacin
·
Antiprostaglandin Agent
·
Aspirin
·
Mefanemic acid
Surgical
Management
·
Lateral Thoracotomy
Complication
·
CCF
·
Infective Endocarditis
·
Pulmonary hypertension
TETRALOGY
OF FALLOT
The
condition is characterized by four defect
·
Pulmonary stenosis
·
Ventricular septal defect
·
Over riding or transposition of
aorta
·
Right ventricular hypertrophy
MANAGMENT
·
Antibiotic therapy
·
Oxygen should be administered
·
Surgical management includes
palliative surgery or definitive correction in one stage repair.
CENTRAL
NERVOUS SYSTEM ABNORMALITIES
ANENCEPHALY
Anencephaly
is a congenital absence of cranial vault with the cerebral hemisphere
completely missing or reduced to small masses.
This condition is incompatible with life, death usually occurs with a
week or two of birth.
SPIRNAL
BIFIDA APERTA
Spine
bifida aperta results from failure of fusion of the vertebral column. There is no skin covering the defect, which
allows protrusion of the meaninges hence the term meningocele. Meningomyelocele does involve the spinal
cord. When the defect is at base of
skull level. It is known as encephalocele.
CLINICAL
FEATURES
·
Neural damage
·
Paralysis
·
Impaired functions of urinary
bladder
MANAGEMENT
·
Immediate management involves
covering open lesion with a non – adherent dressing.
·
Surgery should be done for the
closure.
HYDROCEPHALUS
Hydrocephalus
is the abnormal accumulation of cerebrospinal fluid in the intracranial spaces.
Etiology
Hydrocephalus
may occur due to congenital or acquired causes.
Congenital
hydrocephalus
·
Intra uterine infections
·
Intracranial hemorrhage
·
Congenital malformations
Acquired
Hydrocephalus
·
Inflammation
·
Trauma
·
Chemical – Hyper vitaminosis –
A
CLINICAL
FEATURES
·
Excessive enlargement of the
head
·
Delayed closure of anterior
fontanel
·
Urinary incontinence
·
Ataxia
DIAGNOSTIC
EVLAUATION
·
MRI
·
CT scan
·
Cranial ultrasonography
·
X-ray skull
MANAGEMENT
Medical
management
·
Carbonic analydrase inhibitor
·
Acetazolamide
Surgical
management
·
Ventriculostomy
·
Choroid Plexectomy
Nursing
Management
·
Provide adequate nutrition by
exclusive breast feeding to the neonates and infants.
·
Reduce parentral anxiety.
·
Preventing infections by
aseptic techniques.
·
Maintain fluid balance by IV
fluid therapy, intake output chart etc.
COMPLICATION
·
Seizures
·
Neurological deficits
·
Developmental delay
MICROCEPHALY
This
is where the occipito frontal circumference is more than two standard
deviations below normal for gestational age.
This disproportionately small head may be the result of intrauterine
infection (eg., rubella), a features of fetal alcohol syndrome.
MUSCULOSKELETAL
DEFORMITIES
POLYDUCTYLY
AND SYNDACTYLY
Syndactyly (webbing) more commonly
affects the hands. It is a genetially
inherited condition in which there is premature fusion of the suture of the
vault of the skull, cleft plate and complete syndactyly of both hands and
feets. It can occur as an independent or
as a features of syndrome.
In
polydactyly the extra digit may be fully formed or simply extra tissue attached
by a pedicle. This can be surgically excised.
TALIPES
Congenital
club foot is a non-traumatic deformity of the foot. The foot is twisted out of shape or position.
ETIOLOGY
·
Unknown cause contributing
factors are
·
Familial tendancy
·
Intra uterine malposition of
fetal foot.
·
Defective neuromuscular
development of fetus.
DIAGNOSTIC
EVALUATION
·
The defect is obvious at birth
and detected during first neonatal examination.
·
X-ray of the affected foot
helps to detect bony abnormality.
MANAGEMENT
·
Management should be started as
early as possible with the standard foot wear, may be in the first week of
life.
·
Initial non-operative
management is done by serial manipulation followed by immobilization in a
plaster cast or adhesive tape or strapping or splinting.
SURGICAL
MANAGEMENT
·
Tenotomy
Nursing
management
·
Educate the parents about
correct use of shoes, brace, care of cast, skin care and regular follow up.
·
Teach the mother about the
exercise of the baby’s foot.
GENITOURINARY
SYSTEM ABNORMALITIES
HYPOSPADIASIS
Hypospadiasis
is the congenital abnormal urethral opening on the ventral aspects of the
penis.
MANAGEMENT
·
Meatotomy is done at any age
after birth.
·
Urethroplasty is done 3 to 4
months after chordee correction.
EPISPADIASIS
Epispadiasis
is the congenital abnormal urethral opening on the dorsal aspect of the penis.
MANAGEMENT
·
Management is done by surgical
correction in three stages.
·
Provide emotional support
·
Health maintenance and
promotion of growth and development should be emphasized by balanced diet,
immunization, hygienic measures and parentral guidance.
CONCLUSION
Congenital
abnormality is any defect in form, structure or function. Improved prenatal screening and diagnostic
techniques are now available for detection of abnormalities in early
pregnancy. The aim is to allow the woman
and her spouse to make a unified decision regarding future management of pregnancy.
BIBLIOGRAPH
1.
Parul Datta, Pediatric Nursing,
Pg.No.356, 399.
2.
D.C.Dutta, Text Book of
Obstetrics, 6th Edition, Page No.492-497.
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